A Translational Review of Mechanisms of Effectiveness of Photobiomodulation on Somatosensory Neurons and the Peripheral Nervous System—From Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Applications in Medicine and Dentistry

This review aims to provide a translational link between clinical evidence in the application of photobiomodulation for treatment of painful conditions in medicine and dentistry and neurophysiological effects of photobiomodulation therapy (PBMt). PBMt is gaining increasing acceptance as a therapeutic modality for pain management, particularly within dental practice. However, a clearer understanding of its mechanisms of action remains essential for broader clinical adoption and integration into mainstream healthcare. Central to the therapeutic effects of PBMt for pain is its interaction with neurons, which possess unique structural and functional characteristics. Advances in our understanding of the cellular architecture of dorsal root and trigeminal ganglion neurons highlight the importance of the stem axon and axon initial segment (AIS), a specialized region adjacent to the axon hillock that is now recognized as the principal site of action potential initiation. These developments have important implications for understanding the biological effects of PBMt and its clinical application. This review synthesizes evidence demonstrating that PBM influences cytoskeletal organization, mitochondrial structure and function, and intracellular signaling pathways, with downstream effects on neuronal excitability and nerve conduction. By integrating findings from cellular, neurophysiological, and clinical studies, the review examines how these mechanistic effects may contribute to pain modulation and analgesia.