Deciphering Hate Speech in Multimodal Pakistani Political Memes on X

In today’s world, memes have emerged as an effective tool to disseminate political discourse, often presented in an entertaining way. However, they can also make society more divided by spreading hate speech. Therefore, the current study aimed to explore hate speech indicators in multimodal memes on X (formerly known as Twitter) for a time period of three months (Dec 2023-Feb 2024). The study was conducted in the context of the general elections 2024 in Pakistan. The analysis utilized a combination of the Fairclough model and the multimodal framework of critical discourse analysis to identify and analyze nine indicators of hate speech. These indicators comprised both established indicators, such as dehumanization, character assassination, and name-calling, as well as context-specific expressions of criticism directed at political parties and institutions such as the judiciary and the Election Commission of Pakistan, particularly in response to the allegations of electoral misconduct. The findings suggested that memes are not only a tool to disseminate humor and entertainment but also function as a way for people to show their dissatisfaction and express different opinions. As per critical discourse analysis, the selected memes reflected underlying political tensions and contested narratives of power that surfaced during the elections. Such representations may challenge dominant institutions and contribute to the expression of discontent within the sociopolitical environment of Pakistan