Fundamental theory and cutting-edge applications of TENG

Since its birth in 2012, Triboelectric Nanogenerators (TENGs) have demonstrated astonishing development potential across energy, sensing, and advanced material science domains. The capability of TENG to convert high-entropy energy into electrical signals has led to technological breakthroughs in multiple dimensions. Energy harvesting, beyond conventional fluid energy harvesting, TENGs conquer the low velocity and low frequency fluid kinetic energy, and have significant advantages in distributed energy scenarios. Intelligent sensing, TENG-based sensors achieve high sensitivity, driving advancements in industrial Internet of Things (IoTs) and environmental monitoring. High voltage output (tens of kilovolts) and contact electrification are two characteristics of TENGs. Based on these two characteristics, TENG can develop new high-voltage power sources and interface probe applications. This paper introduces the working principle and theoretical foundation of TENGs, then presents four cutting-edge applications of TENG: fluid energy harvesting, self-adaptive sensors and systems, high-voltage power sources, and interface probes. Finally, the current challenges faced by TENG in these directions were discussed, and some solutions were offered. This review not only provides a comprehensive review of TENG's latest applications but also offers guidance for its future development.